Video and digital Camera

Video and digital cameras use electronics, generally a charge coupled device or sometimes a CMOS sensor to capture images which can be transferred or stored in tape or computer memory inside the camera for later playback or processing. Traditional cameras imprison light onto photographic film or photographic plate. A video camera is a kind of movie camera which stores images onto magnetic tape. Cameras that capture a lot of images in sequence are known as movie cameras or as cine cameras in Europe; those designed for single images are still cameras. However these categories overlap, as still cameras are often used to capture moving images in extraordinary effects work and modern digital cameras are often able to trivially switch between still and motion recording modes. Cameras that take 3D photographs are called as stereo cameras. Stereo cameras for creation 3D prints or slides have two lenses side by side. Stereo cameras for making lenticular prints have 3, 4, 5, or yet more lenses.

Railroad

The terms railroad and railway commonly describe the same thing, a guided means of land transport, designed to be used by trains, for transporting both passengers and freight. Etymologically both words obtain from Old English; a road being something one rides along and way deriving from a Germanic base meaning move, journey, carry.

U.S. practice

Historically, in the United States of America the term railroad, particularly when used in a company name, implies a conventional rail system and railway implies a street railway, also known as a streetcar or light rail line. There are, however, quite a number of exceptions. In fact, many companies change from one period to the other when they re-incorporate, possibly to distinguish between the old and new companies (example: Seaboard Air Line Railroad).

Light rail

Light rail is a exacting class of railway that includes trolleys and trams as well as modern multi-car trains that operate at street level. In the context of light rail, regular freight, traveler and longer distance railways are called heavy rail (but see also that article for a different usage of that word).

Light-rail systems can handle steeper gradients than grave rail, and curves sharp enough to fit within street intersections. They are classically built in urban areas, providing a frequent service with small, light trains or single cars.

Train

In rail transport, a train consists of more than a few connected rail vehicles that are capable of being moved together along a guideway to transport freight or passengers from one place to another along a planned route. The guideway generally consists of conventional rail, but may be monorail or maglev. Propulsion for the train may come from a multiplicity of sources, but often from a locomotive or self-propelled multiple unit. A train can consist of a combination of a locomotive and attached carriages (also known as coaches or cars) or wagons, or a self-propelled several unit (or occasionally a single powered coach, called a railcar). Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a lead, or run downhill by gravity.
Special kinds of trains running on related special 'railways' are atmospheric railways, monorails, high speed railways, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways.

Rail gauge

Rail gauge is the space between two rails of a railroad. Sixty percent of the world's railways use a 4 feet 8½ in (1435 mm) gauge, which is known as normal gauge or international gauge. The place where two different gauges meet is called a break of gauge.

Standard gauge was developed by British engineer George Stephenson, fashionable of the Stockton and Darlington railway, who convinced manufacturers to build equipment using the 4 feet 8½ in standard. In 1845 a royal commission suggested adoption of the 4 feet 8½ in standard, and the following year Parliament passed the Gauge Act, which required that new railways use standard gauge. Except for the Great Western Railway's Broad gauge, few main-line British railways used a dissimilar gauge, and the Great Western was converted to standard gauge in 1892.

Rail tracks

Railroad or railway tracks are used on railways, which, together with railroad switches, guide trains without steering. They consist of two parallel steel rails, which are laid and fastened upon sleepers (or cross ties) which are embedded in ballast to form the railroad track. Rail tracks are normally laid on a bed of coarse stone chippings known as ballast, which combines resilience, some amount of flexibility, and good drainage; however, track can also be laid on or into concrete (across bridges, for example).

There are different ways of combination rails together to form tracks. The traditional way of doing this, was to bolt rails jointly in what is known as jointed track. In this form of track, lengths of rail, usually around 20 metres (60 feet) long are laid and fixed to sleepers (UK) (crossties, or simply ties in US practice), and are connected to other lengths of rail with steel plates known as fishplates (UK) or splices (US).

Rail transport

A railroad or railway is a direct means of land transport, designed to be used by trains, for transport both passenger and delivery. It consists of two parallel rails, generally made of strengthen, and timber or existing sleepers or ties that grasp the rails accurately at the correct distance from each other.

Rail transport is one of the most power efficient means of mechanized land transport known. The rail gives very smooth and hard surfaces on which the wheels of the train may roll with a minimum of friction. This is more relaxed and saves energy. Trains also have a small frontal area in next of kin to the load they are carrying, which cuts down on air resistance and thus energy usage. In all, under the right situation, a train needs 50-70% less energy to transport a given tonnage of freight (or given number of passengers), than by road. Furthermore, together with the sleepers the rails distribute the weight of the train evenly, allowing considerably greater loads per axle/wheel than in road transport.

Theory of Film

Film theory seeks to develop concise, logical concepts that apply to the study of film as art. It was started by Ricciotto Canudo's The origin of the Sixth Art. Formalist film theory, led by Rudolf Arnheim, Béla Balázs, and Siegfried Kracauer, emphasized how film be different from reality, and thus could be considered a valid fine art. André Bazin reacted against this theory by arguing that film's artistic essence lay in its ability to mechanically replicate reality not in its differences from reality, and this gave rise to realist theory. More current analysis spurred by Lacan's psychoanalysis and Ferdinand de Saussure's semiotics with other things has given rise to psychoanalytical film theory, structuralist film theory, feminist film theory and others.

Film’s in 20th century

In the 1920s, new technology permitted filmmakers to attach to each film a soundtrack of speech, music and sound effects synchronized with the action on the screen. These sound films were initially illustrious by calling them "talking pictures", or talkies.

The next main step in the development of cinema was the introduction of color. While the addition of sound speedily eclipsed silent film and theater musicians, color was adopted more gradually. The public was comparatively indifferent to color photography as opposed to black-and-white,[citation needed] but as color processes improved and became as affordable as black-and-white film, more and more movies were filmed in color after the end of World War II, as the industry in America came to view color as necessary to attracting audiences in its competition with television, which remained a black-and-white medium until the mid-1960s. By the end of the 1960s, color had become the norm for film makers.

Since the reject of the studio system in the 1960s, the succeeding decades saw changes in the production and style of film. New Hollywood, French New Wave and the increase of film school educated independent filmmakers were all part of the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th century. Digital technology has been the energetic force in change throughout the 1990s and into the 21st century.

Development of Film in 1880’s

The pictures were publicized at a variable speed of about 5 to 10 pictures per second depending on how rapidly the crank was turned. A number of of these machines were coin operated. By the 1880s, the development of the motion picture camera allowed the individual constituent images to be captured and stored on a single reel, and led quickly to the development of a motion picture projector to be skilled at light through the processed and printed film and magnify these "moving picture shows" onto a screen for an entire audience. These reels, so exhibited, came to be called as "motion pictures." Early motion cinema were static shots that showed an event or action with no editing or other cinematic techniques.

Motion pictures were purely visual art up to the late 19th century, but these inventive silent films had gained a hold on the public imagination. Around the turn of the twentieth century, films began developing a description structure by stringing scenes together to tell narratives. The scenes were later broken up into various shots of varying sizes and angles. Other techniques such as camera movement were realized as effective ways to portray a story on film. Rather than leave the audience in silence, theater owners would hire a pianist or organist or a full rock band to play music fitting the mood of the film at any given moment. By the early 1920s, most films came with a organized list of sheet music for this purpose, with complete film scores being composed for major productions.

History of Film

Mechanisms for producing unnaturally created, two-dimensional images in movement were demonstrated as early as the 1860s, with devices such as the zoetrope and the praxinoscope. These machines were outgrowths of easy optical devices (such as magic lanterns) and would display sequences of still pictures at enough speed for the images on the pictures to show to be moving, a phenomenon called persistence of vision. Naturally, the images wanted to be carefully designed to achieve the desired effect — and the underlying principle became the basis for the development of film animation.

A framework from Roundhay Garden Scene, the world's first film to date, by Louis Le Prince, 1888With the development of celluloid film for still photography, it became likely to directly capture objects in motion in real time. Early versions of the technology sometimes necessary a person to look into a viewing machine to see the pictures which were divide paper prints attached to a drum turned by a handcrank.

Film

Film is a term that encompasses creature motion pictures, the field of film as an art form, and the motion picture industry. Films are formed by recording images from the world with cameras, or by creating images using animation techniques or exceptional effects.

Films are artistic artifacts produced by exact cultures, which repeat those cultures, and, in turn, change them. Film is considered to be an main art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful method for enlightening -or indoctrinating- citizens. The visual elements of cinema give motion pictures a common power of communication; some movies have become popular universal attractions, by using dubbing or subtitles that transform the dialogue.

Traditional films are made up of a sequence of individual images called frames. When these images are shown quickly in succession, a viewer has the illusion that motion is occurring. The viewer cannot see the iridescent between frames due to an effect known as persistence of vision — whereby the eye retains a visual image for a small part of a second after the source has been removed.

The beginning of the name "film" comes from the fact that photographic film (also called film stock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms be present for an individual motion picture, including picture, picture show, photo-play, flick, and most commonly, movie. Additional terms for the field in common include the big screen, the silver screen, the cinema, and the movies.

Water abstraction

Water abstraction, or water extraction, is the procedure of taking water from any source, either temporarily or permanently. Most water is used for irrigation or treatment to produce drinking water. Depending on the environmental legislation in the relevant country, controls may be located on abstraction to limit the amount of water that can be removed. Over abstraction can lead to rivers drying up or the level of groundwater aquifers reducing inappropriately. The science of hydrogeology is used to assess safe abstraction levels.

The Vanilla orchid

The main type harvested for vanillin is Vanilla planifolia. Even though it is native to Mexico, it is now extensively grown throughout the tropics. Madagascar is the world's largest producer, Additional sources include Vanilla pompona and Vanilla tahitiensis (grown in Tahiti), though the vanillin satisfied of these species is much less than Vanilla planifolia.

Vanilla grows as a vine, mountaineering up an existing tree, pole, or other support. It can be full-fledged in a wood (on trees), in a plantation (on trees or poles), or in a "shader", in increasing orders of productivity. Left alone, it will produce as high as possible on the support, with few flowers. Every year, growers fold the senior parts of the plant downwards so that the plant stays at heights accessible by a standing human. This also very much stimulate flowering.

Troposphere

From the Greek word "τρέπω" importance to turn or mix. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere; it starts at the surface and extends to between 7 km (23,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (60,000 ft) at the equator, with some distinction due to weather factors. The troposphere has a enormous deal of vertical mixing due to solar heating at the surface. This heating warms air masses, which makes them less intense so they rise. When an air mass raises the force upon it decreases so it expands, doing work against the contrasting pressure of the surrounding air. To do work is to use energy, so the temperature of the air mass decreases. As the temperature decreases, water vapor in the air mass may concentrate or solidify, releasing latent heat that further uplifts the air mass. This process determines the maximum rate of refuse of temperature with height, called the adiabatic lapse rate.

Human-powered transport

Human-powered transport is transport of person(s) and or goods motorized by human muscle.
Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has been in continuation since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and swimming. However modern technology has led to machines to improve human-power. Although motorization has compact the effort in transport, many human-powered machines stay popular for leisure or exercise and for short distance travel. Human-powered transport is frequently the only (reliable) power source available in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions, and may be measured an ideal form of sustainable transportation.

Barge

A barge is a flat-bottomed boat, built mostly for river and canal transport of important goods. Most barges are not self-propelled and need to be moved by tugboats towing or towboats pushing them. Barges on inland waterways (towed by draft animals on an adjacent towpath) contended with the railway in the early industrial revolution but were out competed in the carriage of high value items owing to the higher speed, falling costs, and route elasticity of rail transport.
Barges are still used today for low value bulk items, as the cost of hauling goods by barge is very low. Barges are also used for very weighty or bulky items; a typical barge events 195 feet by 35 feet (59.4 meters by 10.6 meters), and can take up to 1500 tons of cargo.